Social Psychology

The Differing Perspectives of Actor and Audience.- Self-Serving Bias in Causal Attribution.- In Search of True Cause.- The Social Negotiation of Reality.- Ethnomethods: The Process of Worldmaking.- The "Natural Attitude": Mistaking Convention for Reality.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 2-1 The Perils of the Intuitive Scientist.- Box 2-2 The Fundamental Attribution Error and Judging the Poor.- Box 2-3 The Social Construction of Natural Science.- 3 The Self.- The Development of the Self.- The Looking-Glass Self.- Social Comparison: Beware of Your Companions.- Role Playing: Mask or Reality?.- Social Distinctiveness: "How Do I Differ?".- Self-Maintenance Strategies: Holding Oneself Together.- Self-Verification: The Production of a True Self.- Biased Attention.- Biased Interpretation.- Affiliation and Presentation.- Information Processing and Self-Maintenance.- Balancing Stability and Change.- Understanding the Emotions.- The Biological View: Emotions as Universals.- The Cognitive View: Attributing Emotions.- The Constructionist View: Emotion as Performance.- The Social Management of the Self.- Self-Presentation, Scripts, and Negotiation.- Self-Monitoring: Toward Improved Strategy.- Self-Awareness: Reflexivity and Standards.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 3-1 Memory Makes It So.- Box 3-2 Social Accountability and Selfhood.- Box 3-3 Self-Handicapping: How to Avoid Losing.- 4 Interpersonal Attraction.- The Creation of Attraction.- The Power of Proximity.- Familiarity and the Mere Exposure Hypothesis.- Rules ofDistance: It's Not Who You Are But Where You Are.- Summary.- Physical Beauty.- Initial Attraction: Fair Faces Make Unfair Races.- After the Ball Is Over: The Social Effects Of Beauty.- Beauty Reexamined.- Personal Similarity.- The Joys of Similarity.- Similarity and Complementarity.- Positive Regard: All You Need Is Love.- Information Please: Affiliation and Birth Order.- Close Relationships.- The Course of Intimacy.- A Common Road to Closeness.- Curves in the Road to Closeness: Dialectics and Danger.- Models of Love in Cultural and Historical Perspective.- Long-Term Relationships: Is There Hope?.- Sununary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 4-1 What Makes a Person Beautiful?.- Box 4-2 Loneliness.- 5 Prejudice and Discrimination.- Prejudice and Discrimination: What Are They?.- The Effects of Discrimination.- Target: Self-Esteem.- The Will to Fail.- Discrimination Is Self-Fulfilling. The Pygmalion Effect.- Protest Against the Liberal Line.- Roots of Prejudice.- Early Socialization: Setting the Stage.- The Case of Authoritarianism.- The Media and Prejudice.- Summary.- Prejudice and Payoff.- Intergroup Competition and Social Identity.- Dissimilarity Breeds Discontent.- Summary.- The Maintenance of Prejudice.- Social Support: Sharing Prejudices.- Attitude Salience: At the Top of the Mind.- Stereotypes: Convenient Quicksand.- A Cognitive Base for Stereotypes.- Stereotypes: Pro and Con.- Reduction of Prejudice.- Contact: When Does Getting Together Help?.- Education and the Reduction of Prejudice.- Consciousness Raising.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 5-1 Homophobia: Hatred of Homosexuals.- Box 5-2 Stigma.- Box 5-3 Androgyny: Toward a New Gender.- 6 Attitude Change.- Attitude Structure.- Accessibility and Centrality of Attitudes.-Cognitive Balance.- Communication and Persuasion.- The Communicator.- Communicator Credibility and the Sleeper Effect.- Communicator Attractiveness.- Expressed Intention: The Effects of Forewarning.- The Message.- One Side, Two Sides, and a Conclusion.- The Wages of Fear.- The Communication Channel.- The Audience.- Positive Bias: Agreement at Any Cost.- Inoculation Against Persuasion.- Personality and Persuadability.- The Communication Environment.- Summary.- Cognition and Attitude Change.- Cognitive Dissonance.- Changing Attitudes Through Changing Behavior.- Forced Compliance: When Reward Fails.- Selectivity in Exposure, Learning, and Memory.- Summary.- Information Processing.- Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion.- Environmental Information.- Self-Perception: "To Be Is to Do".- Memory Scanning: Self-Generated Attitude Change.- Summary.- Attitudes and Behavior: The Critical Question.- Answering the Attitudes-Behavior Question.- The Fishbein Model for Behavioral Prediction.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 6-1 Measuring Attitudes: Which Coke for You?.- Box 6-2 Assimilation Versus Contrast: Dividing the World into Black and White.- Box 6-3 When Prophecy Fails.- 7 Altruism: Giving and Receiving Help.- Assessing One's Self: Personal Gain Through Giving.- Does the Action Bring Pleasure?.- Can I Avoid Pain? The Empathic Response.- Do I Have the Resources to Help? The Warm-Glow Effect.- Summary.- Assessing the Needy.- Is the Need Noticeable? The Problem of Self-Preoccupation.- Is Help Deserved? The Just-World Hypothesis.- Is the Recipient Attractive?.- Summary.- Assessing the Social Context.- Are Other Helpers Available? Bystander Intervention.- Is There Safety in Numbers?.- Who Is Helping? The Effects of Norms and Models.- Summary.-Are There Good Samaritans Among Us? Socialization Versus Situationism.- Is the Child the Parent of the Adult? Longitudinal Research.- Transsituational Consistency in Character.- Is Situationalism the Answer?.- The Interactionist Solution.- Reactions to Help: When Gifts Prove Unkind.- Aid as Manipulation.- Aid as a Threat to Self-Esteem.- Aid as an Obligation.- Summary.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 7-1 Dead on Arrival ... Or Is He?.- Box 7-2 Crime and the Not-So-Innocent Bystander.- Box 7-3 Help Seekers: Tattered or Tactical?.- 8 Aggression.- Defining Aggression.- The Biological Basis of Aggression.- The Instinct to Aggress.- Does Biology Dictate Destiny?.- Learning to Be Aggressive.- Reward and Punishment in Action.- Modeling: Seeing Is Being.- The Plight of the Punishing Model.- The Effects of Media Violence.- Emotion and Aggression.- Frustration and Aggression.- Generalized Arousal and Aggression.- Sex, Pornography, and Aggression.- Drugs and Aggression.- Reducing Aggression: The Emotional Approach.- Catharsis: Getting It Off Your Chest.- The Rechanneling of Arousal.- Summary.- Aggression as Cultural Drama.- The Cast: Definition and Deindividuation.- Props and the Presence of Weapons.- Scripts of Violence.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 8-1 The Battered Child.- Box 8-2 Rape.- Box 8-3 Sports and the Violent Spectator.- 9 Social Influence.- The Whys of Uniformity.- Following the Rules: Social Norms.- Following the Model: Social Contagion.- Social Comparison: When in Doubt.- Conformity and Obedience.- The Asch Findings: The Problem of Believing One's Eyes.- Advances in Understanding Conformity.- Is There a Conforming Personality?.- Obedience to Authority.- Conditions of Obedience.- The Obedience Controversy.-Summary.- The Effects of Power on the Powerful.- Negative Effects of Power: The Stanford Prison Study.- Power Corrupts: From Acton to Kipnis.- Resistance to Influence.- Psychological Wellsprings of Independence.- Reactance: The Need to Be Free.- Uniqueness: The Need to Be Different.- Altering the Conditions for Social Control.- Social Support for Nonconformity.- Influence Techniques: Do You Want to Buy the Brooklyn Bridge?.- Minority Influence.- Moving the Majority.- Behavioral Style of the Winning Minority.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 9-1 The Side Effects of a College Education: The Bennington Study.- Box 9-2 Having Your Own Way: Power Strategies in Close Relationships.- Box 9-3 Persuasion Without Words: The Nonverbal Element.- 10 Exchange and Strategy.- Fundamentals of Exchange and Accommodation.- Rules of Exchange.- Resource Theory: Rules of Kind.- Equity Theory: Rules of Amount.- Underreward: The Psychology of Getting Even.- Overreward: Punishment or Perceptual Change?.- Equity Versus Equality.- Summary.- From Exploitation to Cooperation.- Mixed Motives and the Prisoner's Dilemma.- Exploitation in Mixed-Motive Exchange.- Multiple Paths to Cooperation.- The Strategy of Cooperation.- The Strategy of Playing It Tough.- The Tit-for-Tat Strategy and the Gritty Road to Peace.- Threat and Cooperation.- From Individual to Community: Social Traps and the Public Good.- When Communication Fails.- Steps Toward Successful Negotiation.- Third Party Mediation.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 10-1 Intrinsic Reward and the Creative Person.- Box 10-2 Entrapment: Too Much Invested to Quit.- Box 10-3 A Personalized Approach to Resolving Conflict: The Case of Herbert Kelman.- 11 Interaction in Groups.- Attraction in Groups:The Question of Cohesiveness.- Building Group Cohesiveness.- Barriers to Cohesiveness: Competition and Subgroups.- The Fruits of Cohesiveness: Sweet and Bitter.- Cohesion and Contentment.- Cohesion and Catastrophe: Groupthink.- Summary.- The Individual and the Group: Freedom and Social Facilitation.- Freedom and the Question of Deviance.- Rejection of the Deviant.- The Group Confronts the Individual: Social-Impact Theory.- Summary.- Social Faciliation: Doing One's Best in Groups.- Arousal or Apprehension?.- When Social Facilitation Fails.- Diffusion of Responsibility and the Social Loafer.- The Group at Work: Produce or Perish.- Biases in Group Decision Making.- Predispositions.- Minimally Acceptable Solutions: The Case Is Closed.- Choice Shifts: Risky and Tame.- Summary.- Toward Improving Group Decisions.- Selecting the Communications Structure.- Selecting the Membership.- Selecting the Strategy.- Leadership in Groups.- Early Research: Democracy Over All.- The Right Person for the Right Time: The Fiedler Approach.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 11-1 Groups for Human Potential.- Box 11-2 The Problem of Shyness.- Box 11-3 Social Representation: Constructing Reality in Groups.- 12 Social Psychology and Physical Well-Being.- Detecting and Reporting Illness: The Rocky Road to Treatment.- Noticing Symptoms.- Interpreting Symptoms.- Doing Something About Symptoms.- Social Factors in the Cause of Illness.- Stress: The Secret Strangler.- The Loss Effect: Will One Survive?.- Cardiovascular Disorders and the Type A Personality.- Summary.- Helplessness and Health.- Help for the Helpless.- Internal Versus External Control: The Self-Fulfilling Belief.- Controversial Conclusions.- The Social Ecology of Treatment.- Biofeedback.- Coping Strategies.-Mastering the Situation.- Seeking Information.- Passive Coping: The Relaxation Response.- Cognitive Restructuring.- Social Support Networks.- Summary.- Toward an Ounce of Prevention.- Identifying the Hardy.- Information with a Purpose.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 12-1 Sex, Secrets, and Sickness.- Box 12-2 Villainous VD and the Modern Victorians.- Box 12-3 The Management of Pain.- 13 The Application of Social Psychology.- The Physical Environment for Good or Ill.- Architecture: Privacy and Community.- The Experience and Effects of Crowding.- Environmental Noise: Does It Matter?.- The Ecological Approach to Environmental Issues.- Social Psychology and Law.- The Witness: How Far Can We Trust?.- The Defendant: The Winning Smile.- The Lawyer: Winning Words.- The Jury: Reaching Consensus.- Building for the Future.- Social Indicators: Reactive Planning.- Evaluation Research: Proactive Planning.- Summary.- Useful Terms.- Suggested Readings.- Boxes.- Box 13-1 Black Rooms: The Social Effects of the Dark.- Box 13-2 Social Psychology Selects the Jury.- Box 13-3 No Sense of Place: Electronic Media and Social Behavior.- Copyrights and Acknowledgments.- References.- Index of Names.- About the Authors.